=== The Matter Of Everything === ==== Suzie Sheehy 2023 West Slope Library 539.7 SHEEHY ==== Borzoi Book Published by Alfred A. Knopf Copyright 2022 by Suzie Sheeny First American Edition | New York : Alfred A. Knopf, 2023. LCCN 2022021649 | ISBN 9780525658757 (hardcover) Classification: LCC QC793.15 .S54 2023 1st Printing 1984 born [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mildura | Mildura, Victoria, Australia ]] 2006 BS University of Melbourne 2010 PhD University of Oxford 2015 Royal Society University Research Fellow, Oxford [[ https://www.suziesheehy.com/ | Author website ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzie_Sheehy | Wikipedia ]] .011 1895 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen | Röntgen ]] experiment generates X-rays across laboratory from cathode ray tube .014 images wife's hand .016 1897 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Thomson | J. J. Thompson ]] .019 electron .020 Original experiment in [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Museum,_London | Science Museum, London ]] .021 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Howard_Latimer | Lewis Latimer ]] carbon filament for Edison bulb .022 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming | John Ambrose Fleming ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleming_valve | Fleming Valve ]] .024 Brain X-Ray, injected air bubble 1919 until 1960s [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield | Godfrey Hounsfield ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_computed_tomography | X-ray computed tomography ]] .029 physicist [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford | Ernest Rutherford ]] .029 chemist [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Soddy | Frederick Soddy ]] .030 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_scattering_experiments | Rutherford gold foil experiment ]] .039-40 large angle scattering of alphas by gold foil, dense small nucleus .032 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harriet_Brooks | Harriet Brooks ]], grad student from Ontario, detects "gas" (alpha/helium particles) from thorium .037 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Marsden | Ernest Marsden ]] and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Geiger | Hans Geiger ]] .043 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating_of_the_Shroud_of_Turin | Shroud of Turin ]] medieval forgery .043 [[ https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/showing-their-age-62874/ | 14300yo remains in Oregon cabe ]] .047 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect | Photoelectric effect ]] .051 Independent of temperature, not classical .054 Planck quantum "act of desperation" to explain high frequency falloff of black body radiation .055-7 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan | Robert Millikan ]] tries and fails to disprove Einstein, paper 1916 .058 Nobel Prizes 1921 Einstein, 1923 Millikan .061 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie | Louis de Broglie ]] wave properties of particles, Nobel Prize 1929 .063 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Davisson | Davisson ]] and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester_Germer | Germer ]] 1925 experiment, electrons on nickel form nanometer-wavelength interference patterns .063 Sandra Eibenberger 2013 [[ https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms1263 | 10000 amu molecules form 500 femtometer-wavelength interference patterns ]] .071 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griffith_Observatory | Griffith Observatory ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_chamber | Cloud chamber ]], 1936 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Langsdorf_Jr.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers | Alexander Langsdorf ]] design .074 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess | Victor Hess ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray | Cosmic Rays ]] 1936 Nobel .075 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson | Charles Wilson ]] glass blower, cloud chamber, 1927 Nobel .079 Magnets, curve measures charge and energy .079 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Skobeltsyn | Dmitri Skobeltsyn ]] 5 GeV cosmic rays .080 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson | Carl Anderson ]] Caltech cloud chamber, noisy expansion piston, 425 kW magnet .081 observed positrons predicted by [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirac | Dirac ]] .082 Pauli, Bohr, Heisenberg considered Dirac's antimatter nonsense .083 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Blackett | Blackett ]] and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Occhialini | Occhialini ]] observe electron/positron pair production .083 "Anderson youngest physics Nobel" in 1936 at age 33 ... '''nope,''' [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg| William Lawrence Bragg ]] in 1915 at age 25. .084 1935 Anderson and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_Neddermeyer | Neddermeyer ]] observe [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon | muons ]] on [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pikes_Peak | Pike's Peak ]] .085 differ from [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa | Hideki Yukawa's ]] predicted nucleus-binding [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meson | pi mesons ]] .085 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_emulsion | nuclear emulsion plate ]] better than cloud chamber .086 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marietta_Blau | Marietta Blau ]] .087 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibha_Chowdhuri | Bibha Chowdhuri ]] discovers mesons with nuclear emulsion .089 1e18 cosmic rays strike every second, 1 GW; Sheeny '''silly''' calculation "3.6 billion kW every hour" . actually, 1 cosmic ray is 1 nanojoule, 6 GeV ... not 80,000,000 GeV .089 cosmic rays make [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-14 | Carbon-14 ]] .090 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium-10 | Beryllium-10 ]] (half life 1.4MY) ratio to stable ⁹Be dates ice cores and soil deposits .090 ca. 1955, Australian physicist [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon_tomography#Precursor_technologies | E. P. George ]] measures rock density above [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowy_Mountains_Scheme | Snowy Hydro ]] Guthega-Munyang tunnel with cosmic ray muons using a Geiger counter. .090 ca. 1966, Luis Alvarez ( [[ https://archive.org/details/isbn_0465001165/page/230/mode/1up | Adventures of a Physicist, p230-236 ]] ) measures muon density from the Belzoni Champer in the Second Pyramid of Chephren. .091 [[ http://www.scanpyramids.org/index-en.html | ScanPyramids ]] Project finds [[ https://www.nature.com/articles/nature24647 | void ]] in Khufu's Pyramid .095 Violin teaser .097 Rutherford hypothesizes neutrons, proton-mass but uncharged .100 visual estimation of radioactive events prone to confirmation bias (observer overestimate) .101 1927: [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Walton | Ernest Walton ]] proposes accelerating charged particles .101 Walton shares lab with [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Allibone | Thomas Allibone ]] and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cockcroft | John Cockcroft ]] .102 Cockcroft calculates alpha [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb_barrier | Coulomb barrier ]] 10 million volts .104 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow | George Gamow ]] suggests tunneling means 5 MeV emission, 1 MeV sometimes penetrates, perhaps 300 KeV .106 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers | Metrovick ]] 1930 transformer, Walton rectifier . disappointing results .109 Start work on 800KV machine 1932, fail, make 250KV [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator | Cockroft-Walton generator ]] .109 Irene Curie and Frederic Joliot bombard beryllium with polonium sourced alphas, mistakenly assume gamma emission .110 Chadwick [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron#Discovery | observes many 8 MeV alphas ]] produced with 250 KeV protons bombarding Lithium 7 . 7.016003434 amu (Li₇) + 1.007276467 amu (p₁) - 2*4.002603254 amu (He₄) -> 0.018073393 amu = 16.835 MeV/c² .113 Physicist [[ https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/Online/3410/Obituary-of-Harry-Edmund-Gove | Harry Gove ]] at University of Rochester helped Charles Bennett date his violin carbon in 1977. . Used a mass spectrometer to precisely count C-12 and C-14 atoms . Calibrated with geological carbon 14, found modern charcoal has 1000 times as much .114 measured tree rings, fossils, mummy cloth .115 measured the Shroud of Turin, AD 1260-1390 with 95% confidence, not 2000yo at all .115 $500G products made with particle beams annually in the US alone (2022 GDP $25000G) .116 ion implantation for integrated circuits, De Beers gemstone color modification .117 Louvre analyzes composition of artwork and historical artefacts (artifacts is US spelling) .118 measure bottles, detect [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_fraud | wine fraud ]] .120 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence | Ernest Orlando Lawrence]] , first major chemistry, wooed by physicist Lewis Akeley .124 at UCB in 1929, Lawrence imagines cyclotron .125 first attempt with 1930 PhD student Niels Edlefsen .126 next [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._Stanley_Livingston | M. Stanley Livingston ]] 30 cm diameter. 3000 Vac to almost 1 MeV, then 1.1 MeV 1931 August 3 . [[ https://chemistry.berkeley.edu/news/cyclotrons-history-berkeley | Le Conte Room 329 ]] . !LeConte Hall now renamed Physics South .127 larger machines, 27 inch then 37 inch, 2 MeV . [[ https://chemistry.berkeley.edu/news/cyclotrons-history-berkeley | August 1931 Radiation Laboratory ]], former Civil Engineering Test Laboratory .129 deuteron beams coat targets with deuterium, spurious results .131 artificial isotopes, radio-thorium 15.5h halflife, radio-phosphorus .132 MD brother John Lawrence injects radio-phosphorus into mice with leukaemia, cured them, controls died .133 1937 8 MeV 37 inch machine / irradiate mother Lawrence's uterine tumor, she lives another 16 years .134 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt-60 | Cobalt-60 ]], half-life 5.3 years, gamma emitter, 4M medical doses/year .134 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg | Seaborg ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine-131 | Iodine-131 ]], half life 8 days, thyroid cancer, diagnostics .135 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technetium-99m | Technetium-99m ]] 6h half-life, 10M diagnostic procedures per year .138 Relativistic protons gain mass but not speed, desynchronize near a few hundred MeV .139 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation | Synchrotron radiation ]] . [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betatron | Betatron ]], field increases with electron energy, particles orgit at a constant radius .142 100 MeV Betatron, zero to 100MeV 60 times per second .143 10 eV lost per revolution, final energy 99 MeV rather than 100 MeV .143 doubling energy, loss increases 16x, tops out at 500 eV .144 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchrotron | Synchrotron ]], increase drive frequency with particle energy .147 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchrotron_light_source | Synchrotron light source ]] .148 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography | X-ray crystallography ]] . crystals as diffraction gratings, [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Laue | Max von Laue ]] and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald | Paul Peter Ewald ]] .149 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene | Benzene ]] 1929, [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin | Penicillin ]] 1949, [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA | DNA ]] 1952, [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12 | B12 ]] 1955, [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin | Insulin ]] 1969 .150 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Synchrotron | Australian Synchrotron ]] 3 GeV, 500 MHz RF, 216 meters circumference (69m diameter), 14 sectors, 30+ beamlines .152 180 degrees of data in 18 seconds, compared to 40 minutes per angle on benchtop. A range of 50 varied samples can be done in a few hours, rather than years. .152 Without synchrotrons, the SARS-COV-2 structure could have taken years. .153 Understanding [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_magnetoresistance | giant magnetoresistance ]]. used for huge spinning platter hard drives '''but NOT for [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone#Hardware | iPhones ]]'''. .154 protons 1e13 less synchrotron radiation than electrons, but note 17 (page 292) says "radiation power proportional to mass to the fourth power" - nope, '''inversely''' proportional. .157 quote from Ayn Rand [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthem_(novella) | Anthem ]] (!) .159 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez | Luis Alvarez ]] observer in B-29 following Enola Gay over Hiroshima. .161 many physicists worked on The Bomb, [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitner | Lisa Meitner ]] refused .165 Alvarez Lawrence 1954 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bevatron | Bevatron ]] 6.2GeV, stationary target 4 square feet .165 Brookhaven 1953 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmotron | Cosmotron ]] 13.3 GeV .168 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser | Donald Glaser ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble_chamber | Bubble chamber ]] .169 pressure cooker release, bubbles in supercritical fluid .170 tried beer (oops) then [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethyl_ether | diethyl ether ]] .171 With Alvarez help, liquid hydrogen, .172 but first propane at the Brookhaven Cosmotron, 36 pictures, 30-40 rare decays .172 1958 15 inch at Berkeley .173 "scanning girls" analysed particle tracks . More than 200 particles discovered .173 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangeness | particle strangeness ]] .174 1961 Gell-Mann and Ne'eman [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics) | Eightfold Way ]] .175 Glaser 1959 Nobel, shifts to neurobiology and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetus_Corporation | Cetus Corporation ]] .175 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson | Robert R. Wilson 1914-2000 ]] Fermilab director 1967-1978 .177 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_therapy | Particle therapy ]], higher doses ~10cm deep than surface .178 treatment rooms, decorative screens mask thick concrete shielding, 200 ton magnet just above patient .179 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco | Treaty of San Franscisco ]] signed 1951, took effect April 1952, permitted Japanese nuclear research .181 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay | beta decay ]] produces Fermi-postulated [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino | neutrinos ]] .183-8 1951-6 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowan%E2%80%93Reines_neutrino_experiment | Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment at Savannah River]] .189-94 1982-present [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-Kamiokande | Super-Kamiokande ]] Solar neutrino oscillation, tau/electron/muon, antineutrinos, handedness .200 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_and_Sigurd_Varian | Russell and Sigurd Varian ]] from [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halcyon,_California | Halcyon, California ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophy | Theosophist community ]] and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._W._Hansen | William W. Hansen ]] invent the [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klystron | klystron ]] in 1937 .201 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Randall_(physicist) | John Randall ]] and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Boot | Harry Boot ]] at U. Birmingham invent [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavity_magnetron | Cavity Magnetron ]] in 1940 .202 Led to the [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory | MIT Rad Lab ]] .202 1945 ... Raytheon. was producing 17 magnetrons per day ... . That is a TINY number, given the vast demand for radar. CITATION NEEDED .203 1953 ranking, [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litton_Industries | Litton ]] outperformed big companies .the wikipedia articles disagree about dates, and are poorly sourced .204 Stanford Industrial Park renamed [[ https://www.paloaltohistory.org/stanford-research-park.php | Stanford Research Park ]] in the 1970s .205 [[ https://picryl.com/media/berkeley-laboratory-linear-accelerator-group-seated-on-top-of-the-vacuum-tank-50c976? | 1946 Berkeley Alvarez 32 MeV 40 foot proton Linac photo ]] [[ https://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquiring/timeline/12.html | 1947 Stanford Hansen 6 MeV 12 foot electron Linac (segment) photo ]] .207 1953 400MeV linear accelerator .209 1966 20GeV .210 quarks, gluons - kinda lost the thread here .213 1954 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Kaplan_(physician) | Henry Kaplan ]] and [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Ginzton | Edward Ginzton]], 6MeV electron clinical LINAC .214 There are >12,000 radiotherapy LINACs .215 by 2035 additional 12,600 machines and specialists needed . if new biotech doesn't emerge; genetic engineering moves much faster .215 [[ https://www.iceccancer.org/innovative-radiotherapy-technologies/ | STELLA ]] .216 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPEAR | SPEAR ]] 1974-77 evidence of [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau_(particle) | Tau Lepton ]], third generation .219 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tevatron | Tevatron ]] at [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermilab | Fermilab ]], 1983 to 2011, replaced by [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider | Large Hadron Collider ]], 13.6 TeV collision energy .225 1976 6 GeV [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oops-Leon ]] "2% chance of error" turned out to be error . current standard is 5 sigma, less than 1e-6 chance of error .226 15 June 1977 confirmed [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upsilon_meson | Upsilon meson ]] 9.46 GeV .228 Center-of-mass energy, 1TeV beam striking fixed target, 43 GeV of useful particle-creating energy available .229 Wilson Tevatron required 774 dipole and 216 quadrupole !NbTi superconducting magnets, very difficult .230 Superconducting [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_magnet#Magnet_quench | Magnet Quench ]], tiny heat effects lead to enormous failure and explosive destruction .231 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_T._Edwards | Helen Edwards ]] Underground Parameters Committee .The Amateur Magnet Builders Handbook UPC 86, 135, 136 . Conductors must be placed to 0.001 inch .Properties of Superconducting Magnets .233 "Colliding" ''no'' '''Collider''' [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collider_Detector_at_Fermilab | Detector at Fermilab ]] 4500 tonne cylindrical detector inside a superconducting solenoid to bend particle ''paths''. .234 5500 tonne [[ https://www.fnal.gov/pub/tevatron/experiments/dzero.html | DZero ]] detector. .234 multiyear experiments, megascience. .234 Two experiments for independent verification. .234 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_quark | Top quark ]] in 1995, predicted lifetime 5e-25 seconds, last particle of standard model. .236 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method | Monte Carlo method ]] .237 1986 APS meeting in Las Vegas; 4000 physicists didn't gamble at all, hotel's worst financial week. .238 Collider magnets led to [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging | Magnetic resonance imaging ]] .239 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev | Maglev ]] .240 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson | Higgs boson ]] required more expensive collider, hence [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider | LHC ]] .243 LHC director [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyn_Evans | Lyn Evans ]] .244 Some cosmic rays are thousands of times more energetic than LHC collision. .244 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATLAS_experiment | ATLAS ]] .244 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Muon_Solenoid | CMS ]] Compact Muon Solenoid .244 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALICE_experiment | ALICE ]] A Large Ion Collider Experiment .244 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCb_experiment | LHCb ]] Large Hadron Collider beauty, measure [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP_violation | CP violation ]] .244 CERN paid for 80% of LHC, experiments paid by large international collaborations .245 1232 magnets in 27 km tunnel loop. Dr. Sheehy's first summer job was controls for an ATLAS subsystem .246 [[ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1BuWU9KCoQ | 2008 LHC startup day ]] .247 2808 bunches 25 nanoseconds (7.5 meters) apart ... 27000/2808 = 9.615 meters, so bunches approx 2 meters long? .247 11245 laps per second, enough energy to melt 600 kg of copper .248 9 days later, short circuit(?) in joint, quench, six tons of LHe into gas, thirty 35 tonne magnets sheared from floor .[[ https://home.cern/news/press-release/cern/cern-releases-analysis-lhc-incident | 2008 LHC quench analysis ]] .[[ https://home.cern/news/news/accelerators/accelerator-report-quench-lhc-inner-triplet-magnet-causes-small-leak-major | 2023 July LHC quench ]] .249 bunches focused to width of less than a hair .252 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee | Tim Berners-Lee ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML | HTML ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URL | URL ]] [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP | HTTP ]] .254 Annual LHC detector data estimated 90 petabytes per year ( 23 Gb/s ) .254 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldwide_LHC_Computing_Grid | Worldwide LHC Computing Grid ]] .256 [[ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ggsS8BUvP8w | 2012 Higgs discovery announcement ]] [[ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_tFrbnKYto | 2013 Nobel Prize ]] . . . Peter Higgs died 2024 April 8 age 94 .260 most PhD physicists leave academic research, 63% of 2700 CERN researchers working on private sector .261 Dr. Sheehy's research, a small ion trap to mimic particle accelerators .262 LHC has found 50 new hadrons .265 International Particle Accelerator Conference, 10th in Melbourne May 2019, Dr. Sheeny presented opening plenary talk . [[ https://ipac24.org/ | 15th IPAC May 19-24 2024 Nashville ]] [[ https://ipac25.org/ | 16th IPAC June 1-6 2025 Taiwan ]] .268 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_factory | Higgs factory ]], 1 TeV electron-proton collider .268 LHC due to finish operations around 2036 .269 [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_acceleration | Plasma acceleration ]] .271 1930 30% literacy, "now" 86% global literacy .271 Since 1990, average 130,000 people out of poverty per day, 50M/year .271 [[ https://ourworldindata.org/a-history-of-global-living-conditions | The short history of global living conditions and why it matters that we know it ]] . 2015 survey 10% of Swedes think things are getting better, 6% US, 4% Germany .275 Sheehy planning new particle beam lab ------------------- Irrelevant to Sheehy book, but Interesting book? "Hitler's Gift: The True Story of the Scientists Expelled by the Nazi Regime" 2012 by Jean Medawar and ‎David Pyke. PSU 5th Floor Q141.M385